From 04de44f715f16ca1c6452a8b8d064817f443921f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: eggy Date: Mon, 15 Feb 2021 18:34:25 -0500 Subject: [PATCH] hist: logical fallacies --- docs/chw3mz.md | 72 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 72 insertions(+) diff --git a/docs/chw3mz.md b/docs/chw3mz.md index 9948373..54b880b 100644 --- a/docs/chw3mz.md +++ b/docs/chw3mz.md @@ -49,6 +49,78 @@ The abundance of **diverse** data allows for greater perspectives to be gleaned - **Secondary** data is an interpretation of a primary source(s) with its own argument — e.g., articles, thesises, documentaries, etc. - **Tertiary** data compiles secondary sources and should only be used for context — e.g., wikis, textbooks, encyclopedias, etc. +### Logic + +!!! definition + - **Logic** is the study of rules of inference and the analysis of arguments. + - A **conclusion** is a proposition that follows all others. + - An **inference** is a connection that acts as a logical leap between a premise and a conclusion. + - **Logically consistent** statements follow the three laws of thought and do not contradict. + - **Logically contradicting** statements do not follow the three laws of thought. + - The **validity** of a statement is its correctness of reasoning via the laws of thought. + - A **sound** argument is of valid form and has a true premise. + - An **argument** is a simple statement or disagreement that attempts to reach a conclusion by proving something true with evidence. Good arguments are sound, valid, clear, and avoids hasty conclusions. + +**Aristotle** laid the foundations for the principles of formal logic and laid three laws of thought. + + - **Law of identity**: everything is identical with itself. + - **Law of noncontradiction**: contradictory statements cannot both be true. + - **Law of excluded middle**: any proposition must either be true or false. + +!!! example + - Identity: A football is a football. + - Noncontradiction: If water and oil do not mix, and substance A mixes in water, it must not be oil. + - Excluded middle: The Nintendo Switch must either be or not be a potato. + +**Deductive** arguments connect a general statement to a more specific statement based on laws, rules, and/or widely accepted principles. + +!!! example + As monkeys like bananas and Lucy is a monkey, Lucy must like bananas. + +**Inductive** arguments connect a specific statement to a more general statement based on **empiric** data. + +!!! example + As three of the eight billion humans on Earth are mortal, all humans must be mortal. + +### Logical fallacies + + - An **ad hominem** argument attacks the arguer or anything else instead of the argument. + - e.g., *"You're a Nintendo fanboy; of course you think that."* + - Arguments that **appeal to authority** use the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument. + - e.g., *"The President of the United States said that we should inject disinfectant into ourselves, so it must be a good idea!"* + - Arguments that **appeal to emotion** manipulate the recipient's emotions typically via loaded language to win an argument. + - e.g., *"Those island devils have robbed us of our sleep at night — they must be eradicated!"* + - Arguments that **appeal to force** use threats to win an argument. + - e.g., *"I'm right, aren't I?" said the jock, flexing her biceps threateningly.* + - Arguments that **appeal to ignorance** assert a proposition is true because it has not been proven false. + - e.g., *"My laptop must secretly have chips in it that no one can detect from aliens because we don't know if there* aren't *undetectable chips in there."* + - **Bandwagoning or herding** arguments assert that a conclusion is true because it is accepted by most people. This is a result of confirmation bias. + - e.g., *"Ma, everyone else is jumping off that bridge, so why shouldn't I?"* + - A fallacy of **accident** wrongly applies a general rule to a specific exception. + - e.g., *Since surgeons cut people with knives and cutting people with knives is a crime, surgeons are criminals.* + - An argument that **begs the question** has circular reasoning by having premises that assume its conclusion. + - e.g., *Acid eats through your skin because it is corrosive.* + - **Cherry picking** occurs evidence that supports the conclusion is pointed out while those that contradict the conclusion are ignored or withheld. + - e.g., *"Look at these perfect cherries — their tree must be in perfect condition!"* + - A fallacy of **converse accident** wrongly applies a specific exception to a general rule. + - e.g., *As the Nintendo Switch, a game console, is portable, all game consoles must be portable.* + - A **complex question** embeds a proposition that is accepted when a direct answer is given to the question. It is also known as a trick question. + - e.g., *Have you stopped abusing children yet?* + - Arguments with a **false cause** incorrectly assume a cause to an effect. + - e.g., imagining correlation implies causation. + - **Hasty generalisations** appear in inductive generalisations based on insufficient evidence. + - e.g., *Since the first seven odd numbers are prime or square, all prime numbers must be prime or square.* + - Arguments that **miss the point** provide an irrelevant conclusion that fails to address the issue of the question. + - e.g., *"Is it allowed?" "It should be allowed because it's nowhere near as bad as alcohol."* + - A **no true Scotsman** (appeal to purity) fallacy takes a generalisation and doubles down to protect it by excluding counterexamples typically via emotionally charged language. + - e.g., *"Although your father is a Scotsman and dances, no* true *Scotsman would dance."* + - Arguments with **recency bias** put greater importance on recent data over historic data. + - e.g., *As GameStop's stock has risen over the past few days dramatically, it will continue to do so.* + - **Red herrings** change the issue of subject away from the original question. + - e.g., *You should support the new housing bill. We can't continue to see people living in the streets; we must have cheaper housing.* + - A **straw man** argument misrepresents the opposing position by making their arguments sound more extreme. + - e.g., *"We should relax laws on immigration." "The instant we let millions of people through our border is when our country falls."* + ## Resources - [Textbook: Origins and Development of Authoritarian and Single-Party States](/resources/g11/textbook-authoritarian-states.pdf)