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@ -62,15 +62,16 @@ The abundance of **diverse** data allows for greater perspectives to be gleaned
### Logic
!!! definition
- **Logic** is the study of rules of inference and the analysis of arguments.
- A **conclusion** is a proposition that follows all others.
- An **inference** is a connection that acts as a logical leap between a premise and a conclusion.
- **Logically consistent** statements follow the three laws of thought and do not contradict.
- **Logically contradicting** statements do not follow the three laws of thought.
- The **validity** of a statement is its correctness of reasoning via the laws of thought.
- A **sound** argument is of valid form and has a true premise.
- An **argument** is a simple statement or disagreement that attempts to reach a conclusion by proving something true with evidence. Good arguments are sound, valid, clear, and avoids hasty conclusions.
> INFO: **Definition**
>
> - **Logic** is the study of rules of inference and the analysis of arguments.
> - A **conclusion** is a proposition that follows all others.
> - An **inference** is a connection that acts as a logical leap between a premise and a conclusion.
> - **Logically consistent** statements follow the three laws of thought and do not contradict.
> - **Logically contradicting** statements do not follow the three laws of thought.
> - The **validity** of a statement is its correctness of reasoning via the laws of thought.
> - A **sound** argument is of valid form and has a true premise.
> - An **argument** is a simple statement or disagreement that attempts to reach a conclusion by proving something true with evidence. Good arguments are sound, valid, clear, and avoids hasty conclusions.
**Aristotle** laid the foundations for the principles of formal logic via the three laws of thought.
@ -78,10 +79,7 @@ The abundance of **diverse** data allows for greater perspectives to be gleaned
- **Law of noncontradiction**: contradictory statements cannot both be true.
- **Law of excluded middle**: any proposition must either be true or false.
!!! example
- Identity: A football is a football.
- Noncontradiction: If water and oil do not mix, and substance A mixes in water, it must not be oil.
- Excluded middle: The Nintendo Switch must either be or not be a potato.
!!! example - Identity: A football is a football. - Noncontradiction: If water and oil do not mix, and substance A mixes in water, it must not be oil. - Excluded middle: The Nintendo Switch must either be or not be a potato.
**Deductive** arguments connect a general statement to a more specific statement based on laws, rules, and/or widely accepted principles.
@ -96,52 +94,54 @@ The abundance of **diverse** data allows for greater perspectives to be gleaned
### Logical fallacies
- An **ad hominem** argument attacks the arguer or anything else instead of the argument.
- e.g., *"You're a Nintendo fanboy; of course you think that."*
- e.g., _"You're a Nintendo fanboy; of course you think that."_
- Arguments that **appeal to authority** use the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument.
- e.g., *"The President of the United States said that we should inject disinfectant into ourselves, so it must be a good idea!"*
- e.g., _"The President of the United States said that we should inject disinfectant into ourselves, so it must be a good idea!"_
- Arguments that **appeal to emotion** manipulate the recipient's emotions typically via loaded language to win an argument.
- e.g., *"Those island devils have robbed us of our sleep at night — they must be eradicated!"*
- e.g., _"Those island devils have robbed us of our sleep at night — they must be eradicated!"_
- Arguments that **appeal to force** use threats to win an argument.
- e.g., *"I'm right, aren't I?" said the jock, flexing her biceps threateningly.*
- e.g., _"I'm right, aren't I?" said the jock, flexing her biceps threateningly._
- Arguments that **appeal to ignorance** assert a proposition is true because it has not been proven false.
- e.g., *"My laptop must secretly have chips in it that no one can detect from aliens because we don't know if there* aren't *undetectable chips in there."*
- e.g., _"My laptop must secretly have chips in it that no one can detect from aliens because we don't know if there_ aren't _undetectable chips in there."_
- **Bandwagoning or herding** arguments assert that a conclusion is true because it is accepted by most people. This is a result of confirmation bias.
- e.g., *"Ma, everyone else is jumping off that bridge, so why shouldn't I?"*
- e.g., _"Ma, everyone else is jumping off that bridge, so why shouldn't I?"_
- A fallacy of **accident** wrongly applies a general rule to a specific exception.
- e.g., *Since surgeons cut people with knives and cutting people with knives is a crime, surgeons are criminals.*
- e.g., _Since surgeons cut people with knives and cutting people with knives is a crime, surgeons are criminals._
- An argument that **begs the question** has circular reasoning by having premises that assume its conclusion.
- e.g., *Acid must be able to eat through your skin because it is corrosive.*
- e.g., _Acid must be able to eat through your skin because it is corrosive._
- **Cherry picking** occurs when evidence that supports the conclusion is pointed out while those that contradict the conclusion are ignored or withheld.
- e.g., *"Look at these perfect cherries — their tree must be in perfect condition!"*
- e.g., _"Look at these perfect cherries — their tree must be in perfect condition!"_
- A fallacy of **converse accident** wrongly applies a specific exception to a general rule.
- e.g., *As the Nintendo Switch, a game console, is portable, all game consoles must be portable.*
- e.g., _As the Nintendo Switch, a game console, is portable, all game consoles must be portable._
- A **complex question**, also known as a trick question, embeds a proposition that is accepted when a direct answer is given to the question.
- e.g., *Have you stopped abusing children yet?*
- e.g., _Have you stopped abusing children yet?_
- Arguments with a **false cause** incorrectly assume a cause to an effect.
- e.g., imagining correlation implies causation.
- **Hasty generalisations** appear in inductive generalisations based on insufficient evidence.
- e.g., *Since the first seven odd numbers are prime or square, all odd numbers must be prime or square.*
- e.g., _Since the first seven odd numbers are prime or square, all odd numbers must be prime or square._
- Arguments that **miss the point** provide an irrelevant conclusion that fails to address the issue of the question.
- e.g., *"Is it allowed?" "It should be allowed because it's nowhere near as bad as alcohol."*
- e.g., _"Is it allowed?" "It should be allowed because it's nowhere near as bad as alcohol."_
- A **non sequitur** is an invalid argument that does not follow the laws of thought.
- e.g., *All humans are mammals. Whales are mammals. Therefore, whales are humans.*
- e.g., _All humans are mammals. Whales are mammals. Therefore, whales are humans._
- A **no true Scotsman** (appeal to purity) fallacy takes a generalisation and doubles down to protect it by excluding counterexamples typically via emotionally charged language.
- e.g., *"Although your father is a Scotsman and dances, no* true *Scotsman would dance."*
- e.g., _"Although your father is a Scotsman and dances, no_ true _Scotsman would dance."_
- Arguments with **recency bias** put greater importance on recent data over historic data.
- e.g., *As GameStop's stock has risen over the past few days dramatically, it will continue to do so.*
- e.g., _As GameStop's stock has risen over the past few days dramatically, it will continue to do so._
- **Red herrings** change the issue of subject away from the original question.
- e.g., *You should support the new housing bill. We can't continue to see people living in the streets; we must have cheaper housing.*
- e.g., _You should support the new housing bill. We can't continue to see people living in the streets; we must have cheaper housing._
- A **straw man** argument misrepresents the opposing position by making their arguments sound more extreme.
- e.g., *"We should relax laws on immigration." "The instant we let millions of people through our border is when our country falls."*
- e.g., _"We should relax laws on immigration." "The instant we let millions of people through our border is when our country falls."_
## Causes of the Chinese Civil War
### Decline of the Manchu Qing Dynasty
**— Long-term structural political**
In the Qing dynasty, from 1861 to 1908, Empress **Cixi** ruled China as an autocrat. Corruption was rampant in Beijing and officials could not control warlords in remote regions. Under Cixi, China became weak and was easily influenced by foreign powers.
### Foreign involvement
**— Long-term structural political**
The influence of foreign powers increased outrage among citizens at the inability of the government to do things and led to greater internal dissent.
@ -154,6 +154,7 @@ The **First Sino-Japanese War** (also known as the War or Jiawu) in 1894–1895
During the First Sino-Japanese War, Cixi took military money and spent it on palace renovations, demonstrating the corruption in and ineffectiveness of the regime.
### Outdated agricultural practices and limited industrial development
**— Long-term structural economic**
!!! context
@ -167,6 +168,7 @@ China's rulers believed that Westerners were barbarians and that nothing could b
Additionally, the population boom meant that demand for food increased, but outdated agricultural practices and technologies could not keep up, resulting in famine.
### Tradition and class structure
**— Long-term structural social**
China operated under a **patriarchy** and had traditions and practices which were thought to be even at the time to be cruel and outdated especially for women.
@ -188,6 +190,7 @@ The **class structure** in China did not change for hundreds of years and old tr
- Landlords could taken peasant women as they wished, force peasants to perform extra duties, and beat them if they were questioned.
### Internal dissent
**— Long-term structural political**
The **Taiping Civil War** from 1850 to 1864 was one of the bloodiest wars ever and the largest conflict of the 19th century. Anti-Manchurian sentiment was high as the people did not like that the Qing dynasty was ruled not by themselves. At the time, they could not marry Manchus, could not settle in Manchuria, and men were required to wear queues as a reminder of submission to Qing rule.
@ -207,11 +210,13 @@ failure of revolution
aftermath of revolution
### Warlords
**— Short-term**
warlords
### Rise of revolutionaries 2: electric boogaloo
**— Short-term**
first united front
@ -244,11 +249,11 @@ In 1955, the region became an [autonomous region](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
#### Controlling the population
All citizens were required to belong to a self-sufficient entity known as a *danwei* (Chinese: 单位), or **work unit**. Permission from the work unit was needed to marry or have children. Under the threat of punishment if policy was not followed, everyone was assigned a home a food to eat along with others in their work unit. Regardless of their size, all work units were obligated to provide or share adequate facilities — schools, housing, health care, etc.
All citizens were required to belong to a self-sufficient entity known as a _danwei_ (Chinese: 单位), or **work unit**. Permission from the work unit was needed to marry or have children. Under the threat of punishment if policy was not followed, everyone was assigned a home a food to eat along with others in their work unit. Regardless of their size, all work units were obligated to provide or share adequate facilities — schools, housing, health care, etc.
A system of **household registration** to identify citizens known as *hukou* (Chinese: 户口) recorded the birth, death, and movement of people as well as their family members, connecting identifiable information to their location of permanent residence. Whether someone was given better benefits by the government was determined by their agricultural status (agricultural or non-agricultural — i.e. rural or urban, non-agricultural was better) and it was virtually impossible to switch to the other. During industrialisation from 1955 onward, Mao used this system to control rural-to-urban migration by way of a certificate on one's registration required to be able to move to urban area.
A system of **household registration** to identify citizens known as _hukou_ (Chinese: 户口) recorded the birth, death, and movement of people as well as their family members, connecting identifiable information to their location of permanent residence. Whether someone was given better benefits by the government was determined by their agricultural status (agricultural or non-agricultural — i.e. rural or urban, non-agricultural was better) and it was virtually impossible to switch to the other. During industrialisation from 1955 onward, Mao used this system to control rural-to-urban migration by way of a certificate on one's registration required to be able to move to urban area.
Public **records** per person known as *dang'an* (Chinese: 档案) contained personal information such as:
Public **records** per person known as _dang'an_ (Chinese: 档案) contained personal information such as:
- employment records
- physical characteristics
@ -361,11 +366,7 @@ Mao's cult of personality reached its peak during the Cultural Revolution. The p
To create citizens supportive of the state, the CCP controlled the curriculum, reading material, and other information that students were exposed to. Schools effectively became indoctrination centres.
!!! example
- Chinese textbooks were censored.
- The Little Red Book was the primary literary text.
- Elementary education focused on rote (memorisation via repetition) over critical thinking.
- Secondary education focused on testing, exams, physical education, and in practice it was mostly children of high ranking party members and government officials who attended.
!!! example - Chinese textbooks were censored. - The Little Red Book was the primary literary text. - Elementary education focused on rote (memorisation via repetition) over critical thinking. - Secondary education focused on testing, exams, physical education, and in practice it was mostly children of high ranking party members and government officials who attended.
**Language reforms** resulted in a new form of Mandarin that allowed for people averywhere in the country to communicate. This standardisation made Mandarin easier to learn but caused local languages to disappear.
@ -395,7 +396,7 @@ Traditional Chinese **operas** were replaced by those focused on the proletariat
Folk **music** was made modern and an attempt was made to put traditional Chinese music on equal footing. Rousing songs that appealed to the masses were composed, and Western music was entirely banned — symphonic and classical music fell in this category as they were associated with elitism and the West. Mao's poems were put into choral and classical music — the Red Guard sang lyrics derived from the Little Red Book.
**"The East is Red"** was a revolutionary song that was the *de facto* national anthem during the Cultural Revolution. It was played through loudspeakers everywhere at dawn and dusk, sung by students at the beginning of the first class of each day, and shows began with this song.
**"The East is Red"** was a revolutionary song that was the _de facto_ national anthem during the Cultural Revolution. It was played through loudspeakers everywhere at dawn and dusk, sung by students at the beginning of the first class of each day, and shows began with this song.
!!! quote ""The East is Red""
The east is red, the sun is rising,
@ -440,7 +441,7 @@ After Mao's retreat from the Great Leap Forward, in 1966, he decided to reorgani
[**Laojiao**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-education_through_labor) (Chinese: 劳教)), or re-education through labour, involved sending prisoners to labour camps. Designed to re-educate intellectuals, the goal was for prisoners to live and work with farmers and workers. They were also required to attend political classes where they denounced themselves and criticised their own thinking to realign their thoughts with communism. Those who committed smaller crimes that did not warrant capital punishment were sent here.
[**Laogai**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai) (Chinese: 劳改), or reform through labour, is a lake in *Avatar: The Last Airbender*. Located in Ba Sing Se in the Earth Kingdom, it hid an underground prison where those interned were brainwashed. It is also compared to the USSR's [*gulag*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag). As internment camps for criminals, they were built in areas with extreme wewather and interns were forced to perform hard labour such as digging dithes and building roads under extremely poor conditions.
[**Laogai**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laogai) (Chinese: 劳改), or reform through labour, is a lake in _Avatar: The Last Airbender_. Located in Ba Sing Se in the Earth Kingdom, it hid an underground prison where those interned were brainwashed. It is also compared to the USSR's [_gulag_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag). As internment camps for criminals, they were built in areas with extreme wewather and interns were forced to perform hard labour such as digging dithes and building roads under extremely poor conditions.
!!! quote
The Earth King has invited you to Lake Laogai.
@ -454,7 +455,7 @@ The Chinese followed **Confucian** philosophy, so social harmony was very import
**Maoism** was described as "Marxism adapted to Chinese conditions". It held the following differences compared to Marxism:
1. Peasants are the **agents of change** as opposed to urban workers, and they are moldable via social engineering. Mao used this to set up his own cult that would keep others in line.
3. All revolutions require constant renewal, and permanent, **constant revolution** is required to prevent counter-revolution. Mao related stability to dangerous bureaucracy and privileged classes such as imperial China and the USSR under Khrushchev. He used this to justify constant revolution such as the Hundred Flowers Campaign and Cultural Revolution, creating a culture where violent upheaval was a regular way of life.
2. All revolutions require constant renewal, and permanent, **constant revolution** is required to prevent counter-revolution. Mao related stability to dangerous bureaucracy and privileged classes such as imperial China and the USSR under Khrushchev. He used this to justify constant revolution such as the Hundred Flowers Campaign and Cultural Revolution, creating a culture where violent upheaval was a regular way of life.
### Historians
@ -498,13 +499,9 @@ Under a desire to unify Korea under communism, North Korean leader [Kim Il-Sung]
In response, the [United Nations Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council) declared North Korea as the aggressor and sent troops from 15 countries led by the US to restore peace under American general [Douglas MacArthur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur), successfully retaking the 38th parallel.
!!! info
- The UN motion to send troops only succeeded because the Soviet delegate with [veto powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power) was absent as a protest against UN refusal to accept the PRC as the legitimate government of China.
- The United States, South Korea, and other nations sent 350 000, 400 000, and 50 000 troops, respectively.
!!! info - The UN motion to send troops only succeeded because the Soviet delegate with [veto powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power) was absent as a protest against UN refusal to accept the PRC as the legitimate government of China. - The United States, South Korea, and other nations sent 350 000, 400 000, and 50 000 troops, respectively.
!!! background
- North Korea made significant contributions to the CCP during their liberation of mainland China.
- Sino-American relations during this time period were especially poor due to the Truman administration declaring their support for the Republic of China on Taiwan as the "main China".
!!! background - North Korea made significant contributions to the CCP during their liberation of mainland China. - Sino-American relations during this time period were especially poor due to the Truman administration declaring their support for the Republic of China on Taiwan as the "main China".
When UN forces crossed the Yalu River on the China-Korea border, Mao felt China's security was at stake and also recognised an opportunity to assert power. Additionally, concern over border security with a hostile east due to a revived Japan, a desire to replace the Soviet influence in North Korea with their own, and Stalin pressing Mao to assist in the war led China to intervene.
@ -517,7 +514,7 @@ In October 1950, the [Chinese People's Volunteers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
From China's perspective, the war was both a success and a failure. Mao propagandised the war as a total success in their aim to "Resist America and Defend Korea".
| Success | Failure |
| --- | --- |
| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Mao gained considerable prestige for being able to fight the US to a standstill | Heavy casualties — Mao's eldest son was killed in an air raid |
| North Korea remained communist | Sino-American relations deteriorated further, and China faced a total embargo from the US |
| China preserved its Manchurian border where its heavy industry was concentrated | The USSR-lent military equipment had to be repaid |
@ -533,18 +530,13 @@ Stalin and Mao's relationship was tense, and the relationship between the two co
**Personality and ideological conflicts** between the leaders and countries worsened relations. Mao acted like an obedient student and never openly contradicted Stalin while he was in power but was often annoyed by his level of control over the CCP. Stalin was annoyed by Mao's attitude but needed a strong ally.
!!! example
- In 1921, Mao believed that the rural population would lead China to revolution while Stalin interpreted that the proletariat could only be urban workers.
- After the end of World War II, Stalin requested Mao to work with the GMD, but Mao decided to wipe out the party and take power instead.
!!! example - In 1921, Mao believed that the rural population would lead China to revolution while Stalin interpreted that the proletariat could only be urban workers. - After the end of World War II, Stalin requested Mao to work with the GMD, but Mao decided to wipe out the party and take power instead.
In 1956, after Stalin's death, Khrushchev gave a [secret speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences) denouncing his rule. Mao was alarmed by the brutality of these attacks and interpreted the speech as criticism against him and his own leadership in China.
!!! definition
- **Détente** between the US and Soviet Union was the relaxation of strained relations between the two countries.
- **Revisionism** in this context is the betrayal of original revolutionary ideas.
- **Peaceful coexistence** is the belief that both capitalist and communist nations can exist together without war.
!!! definition - **Détente** between the US and Soviet Union was the relaxation of strained relations between the two countries. - **Revisionism** in this context is the betrayal of original revolutionary ideas. - **Peaceful coexistence** is the belief that both capitalist and communist nations can exist together without war.
In 1957, Khrushchev organised a [conference in Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957_International_Meeting_of_Communist_and_Workers_Parties), inviting all communist states including China. Mao complained about Khrushchev's [revisionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)) and [peaceful coexistence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence)/[detente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente) approaches with the United States. Mao believed that it was the duty of communists to conduct class warfare and that the Soviet Union was being too soft on the West by making concessions — they were not fit to lead the communist world. He thought that a final violent conflict was needed with capitalism.
In 1957, Khrushchev organised a [conference in Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957_International_Meeting_of_Communist_and_Workers_Parties), inviting all communist states including China. Mao complained about Khrushchev's [revisionism](<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)>) and [peaceful coexistence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence)/[detente](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente) approaches with the United States. Mao believed that it was the duty of communists to conduct class warfare and that the Soviet Union was being too soft on the West by making concessions — they were not fit to lead the communist world. He thought that a final violent conflict was needed with capitalism.
In 1958, Khrushchev was invited to visit China and Mao treated him with disdain, aiming to make his visit unpleasant: the Soviet delegation was placed in a hotel with no AC, Mao invited Khrushchev to swim in his private pool — aware of his inability to swim, and refused any proposals for military cooperation and defense initiatives. In response, Khrushchev pulled most advisors out from China and removed all of them by 1960.
@ -582,14 +574,13 @@ The [**Shanghai Communiqué**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Communiqu%
### Historians
???+ quote "*Mao: a Biography* - Ross Terill (revisionist and somewhat sympathetic to Mao), 1995:"
???+ quote "_Mao: a Biography_ - Ross Terill (revisionist and somewhat sympathetic to Mao), 1995:"
Mao knew little of the world outside China, and nothing of the capitalist world… Yet Mao took a lively interest in the world beyond the Soviet Bloc during the early 1960s… It was as if the split with Russia in 1960 took a burden off the back of Chinese diplomacy. Instead of being junior partner in someone else’s show, Mao made China its own one-man show on the broadening stage of the Third World.
???+ quote "*Mao: Profiles in Power* - Shaun Breslin, 1998:"
???+ quote "_Mao: Profiles in Power_ - Shaun Breslin, 1998:"
Mao’s main objective in all of his foreign policy initiative from 1949 to 1976 was to safeguard China’s borders and restore China to its rightful position on the world stage. Mao had a traditional Sinocentrism: the notion that China is the central place in the world, and that only those who recognise and accept Chinese superiority can be considered to be civilised.
???+ quote "*Mao Zedong* - Maurice Meisner (sympathetic to socialist ideology and goals), 2007:"
???+ quote "_Mao Zedong_ - Maurice Meisner (sympathetic to socialist ideology and goals), 2007:"
Mao’s foreign policy clothed itself in revolutionary rhetoric, but was conservatively cautious in substance, based on narrow calculation of China’s national self-interest… In Mao’s view the Soviet Union posed a greater danger to China than did the United States.
## Resources

2
requirements.txt
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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
mkdocs
mkdocs-material
mkdocs-material-extensionsgi
mkdocs-callouts
markdown-callouts