diff --git a/docs/1b/math119.md b/docs/1b/math119.md index 0d0f316..0db4ddc 100644 --- a/docs/1b/math119.md +++ b/docs/1b/math119.md @@ -790,4 +790,62 @@ An absolutely converging series also has its regular form converge. A series converges **conditionally** if it converges but not absolutely. This indicates that it is possible for all $b\in\mathbb R$ to rearrange $\sum a_n$ to cause it to converge to $b$. +### Power series + +A power series **centred at $x_0$** is an infinitely long polynomial. + +$$\sum^\infty_{n=0}c_n(x-x_0)^n$$ + +If there are multiple identified domains of convergence, the endpoints must be tested separately to get the **interval of convergence**. The **radius of convergence** is the amplitude of the interval, regardless of inclusion/exclusion. + +$$r=\frac{\text{max}-\text{min}}{2}$$ + +For a power series of radius $R$, regardless if it is differentiated, integrated, multiplied (by non-zero), the radius remains $R$. + +!!! warning + The interval may change. + +Adding functions with different radii results in a radius roughly near the smaller interval of convergence. + +The **binomial series** is the infinite expansion of $(1+x)^m$ with radius 1. + +$$(1+x)^m=\sum^\infty_{n=0}\frac{m(m-1)(m-2)...(m-n+1)}{n!}x^n$$ + +## Big O notation + +A function $f$ is of order $g$ as $x\to x_0$ if $|f(x)|\leq c|g(x)|$ for all $x$ near $x_0$. This is written as big O: + +$$f(x)=O(g(x))\text{ as }x\to x_0$$ + +The inner function only dictates how it grows, discarding any constant terms. + +!!! example + As $x\to 0$, $x^3=O(x^2)$ as well as $O(x)$ and $O(1)$. Thus $kx^3=O(x^2)$ for all $k\in\mathbb R$. + + However, $x^3=O(x^4)$ only as $x\to\infty$ by the definition. + +!!! example + As $|\sin x|\leq |x|$, $\sin x=O(x)$ as $x\to 0$. + + +If $f=O(x^m)$ and $g=O(x^n)$ as $x\to 0$: + +- $fg=O(x^{m+n})$ +- $f+g=O(x^q)$, where `q=min(m,n)` +- $kO(x^n)=O(x^n)$ +- $O(x^n)^m=O(x^{nm})$ +- $O(x^m)\div x^n=O(x^{m-n})$ + +With Taylor series, big O is the remainder. + +$$R_n(x)=O((x-x_0)^{n+1})$$ + +The limit of big O is the behaviour of $g(x)$. + +!!! example + \begin{align*} + \lim_{x\to 0}\frac{x^2e^x+2\cos x-2}{x^3}&=\lim_{x\to 0}\frac{x^3+O(x^4)}{x^3} \\ + &= 1+O(x) \\ + &= 1 + \end{align*}