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310 lines
15 KiB
Markdown
310 lines
15 KiB
Markdown
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# Unit 2: Chemistry
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## Chemistry Vocabulary List
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<table class="table" style="max-width:80%">
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<tr>
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<th>Word</th>
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<th>Definition (or diagram/translation)</th>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Particle Theory of Matter</td>
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<td>Theory that describes the composition and behaviour of matter as being composed of small particles with empty space</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Matter</td>
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<td>Substance that has mass and occupies space</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Mechanical Mixture</td>
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<td>A heterogeneous mixture which one can physically separate</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Suspension</td>
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<td>A heterogeneous mixture where insoluble solid particles are distributed throughout a fluid, floating freely/td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Alloy</td>
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<td>A combination of 2+ metals</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Mixture</td>
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<td>A substance that is made up of at least 2 types of particles</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Qualitative property</td>
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<td>A property of a substance that is not measured and doesn't have a numerical value, such as colour, odour, and texture</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Qualitative observation</td>
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<td>An numerical observation</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Precipitate</td>
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<td>A solid that separates from a solution</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Density</td>
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<td>A measure of how much mass is contained in a given unit volume of a substance; calculated by dividing the mass of a sample of its volume <b>(mass/volume)</b></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Element</td>
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<td>Element An element is made up of the same atoms throughout, and cannot be broken down further</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Metal</td>
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<td>a solid material that is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Pure substance</td>
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<td>A substance that is made up of only one type of particle</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Atom</td>
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<td>The smallest unit of matter found in substances</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Solution</td>
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<td>A uniform mixture of 2 or more substances</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Colloid</td>
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<td>is substance with small particles suspended in it, unable to be separated by gravity</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Emulsion</td>
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<td>A mixture of 2 insoluble liquids, in which one liquid is suspended in the other</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Physical Property</td>
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<td>Characteristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the makeup of the substance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Characteristic</td>
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<td>A physical property that is unique to a substance and can be used to identify the substance</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Periodic Table</td>
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<td>a table of the chemical elements arranged in order of atomic number, usually in rows, so that elements with similar atomic structure (and hence similar chemical properties) appear in vertical columns.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Compound</td>
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<td>Compounds are chemically joined atoms of different elements</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Non-Metal</td>
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<td>A substance that isn’t a metal</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Physical Change</td>
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<td>A change in which <b>the composition of the substance remains unaltered` and `no new substances are produced</b></td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Chemical Change</td>
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<td>A <b>change</b> in the starting substance and the <b>production of ONE or more new substances</b><br> Original substance does not disappear <b>BUT</b> the composition is rearranged</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Molecule</td>
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<td>Two or more <b>non-metal</b> atoms joined together</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Diatomic Molecules</td>
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<td>Molecules that <b>only</b> consists of 2 elements <br> `H O F BR I N CL` - `hyrodgen`, `oxygen`, `fluorine`, `bromine`, `iodine`, `nitrogen`, `chlorine`.</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Ions</td>
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<td>A Charged particle, that results from a <b>loss</b> (cation - positve, less electrons) or <b>gain</b> (anion - negative, more electrons) of electrons when bonding</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Electron</td>
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<td>Negatively Charged</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Proton</td>
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<td>Positively Charged</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Neutron</td>
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<td>Neutral Charged</td>
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</tr>
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<td>Ionic Charge</td>
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<td>The <b>sum</b> of the positive and negative charges in a ion</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Covalent Bond</td>
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<td>The sharing of electrons between atoms when bonding</td>
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</tr>
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<tr>
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<td>Valence Electrons</td>
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<td>Number of electrons on the most outer orbit/shell of the element</td>
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</tr>
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</table>
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## Particle Theory of Matter
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1. Matter is made up of tiny particles.
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2. Particles of Matter are in constant motion.
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3. Particles of Matter are held together by very strong electrical forces.
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4. There are empty spaces between the particles of matter that are very large compared to the particles themselves.
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5. Each substance has unique particles that are different from the particles of other substances.
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## Physical Properties
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- A characeristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the composition ("make-up") of that substance
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- Characteristics can be determinded using your 5 senses and measuring instruments
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- smell, taste, touch, hearing, sight
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- scales, tape, measuring meter
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## Qualitative and Quantitative Properties
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|Type|Definition|Example|
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|:---|:---------|:------|
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|Quantitative Property|A property that IS measured and has **```a numerical value```** |Ex. **```Temperature, height, mass, density```**|
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|Qualitative Property|A property that is NOT measured and has **```no numerical value```**|Ex. **```Colour, odor, texture```**|
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## Density
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<img src="https://mathsmadeeasy.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/density-mass-volume-triangle.png" width="300">
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## Quantitative physical Properties
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- **```Density```**: amount of ```stuff``` (or mass) per unit volume (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)
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- **```Freezing Point```**: point where water solidifies (0<sup>o</sup>C)
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- **```Melting Point```**: point where water liquefies (0<sup>o</sup>C)
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- **```Boiling Point```**: point where liquid phase becomes gaseous (100<sup>o</sup>C)
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## Common Qualitative Physical Properties
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|Type|Definition|Example|
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|Lustre|Shininess of dullness<br> Referred to as high or low lustre depending on the shininess||
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|Clarity|The ability to allow light through|```Transparent``` (Glass) <br>```Translucent``` (Frosted Glass) <br>```Opaque``` (Brick)|
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|Brittleness|Breakability or flexibility<br> Glass would be considered as brittle whereas slime/clay are flexible|
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|Viscosity|The ability of a liquid or gas to resist flow or not pour readily through<br> Refer to as more or less viscous|Molasses is more viscous, water is less (gases tend to get"thicker as heated; liquids get runnier)|
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|Hardness|The relative ability to scratch or be scratched by another substance<br> Referred to as high or low level of hardness| Can use a scale (1 is wax, 10 is diamond)|
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|Malleability|the ability of a substance ```to be hammered``` into a thinner sheet or molded|Silver is malleable<br> Play dough/pizza dough is less<br> glass is not malleable|
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|Ductility|the ability of a substance to be pulled into a finer strand|Pieces of copper can be drawn into thin wires, ductile|
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|Electrical Conductivity|The ability of a substance to allow electric current to pass through it<br> Refer to as high and low conductivity|Copper wires have high conductivity<br> Plastic has no conductivity|
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|Form: Crystalline Solid|Have their particles arranged in an orderly geometric pattern|Salt and Diamonods|
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|Form: Amorphous Solid|Have their particles randomly distributed without any long-range-pattern|Plastic, Glass, Charcoal|
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# Chemical Property
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- A characteristic (property) of a substance that describes its ability to undergo ```changes to its composition to produce one of more new substances. AKA BEHAVIOUR. Everything has one!```
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- ```Cannot be determined by physical properties```
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- E.g. ability of nails /cars to rust
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- Fireworks are explosive
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- Denim is resistant to soap, but is combustible
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- Baking soda reacts with vinegar and cake ingredients to rise
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- Bacterial cultures convert milk to cheese, grapes to wine, cocoa to chocolate
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- CLR used to clean kettles, showerheads because it breaks down minerals
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- Silver cleaner for tarnished jewellery, dishes because silver reacts with air to turn black.
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## Periodic Table
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<img src="https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/121316/1.png?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=1300&height=693" width="1200">
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### Trends On The Periodic Table
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- The first column are the `Alkali metals`.
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- They are shiny, have the consitency of clay, and are easily cut with a knife.
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- They are the **most reactive** metals.
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- They react violently with water.
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- Alkali metals are **never found as free elements in nature**. They are always bonded with another element.
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- The second column are the `Alkaline earth metals`.
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- They are **never found uncombined in nature**.
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- The last column are the `Noble gases`.
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- **Extremely un-reactive**.
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- The second last column are the `Halogens`.
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- The **most reactive non-metals**
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- They **react with alkali metals to form salts**.
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- The middle parts are the `transition metals`.
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- They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
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- Usually bright coloured.
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- They have properties similar to elements in their same family
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- Many of them combine with oxygen to form compounds called oxides.
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- The rows outside the table are the `Inner tranistion metals`.
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<img src="https://files.catbox.moe/6522hg.png" width="600">
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- The **left** to the **staircase** are the metals and the **right** are the non-metals. The ones touching the **staircase** are the `metalloids`.
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<img src="http://www.sussexvt.k12.de.us/science/The%20Periodic%20Table/Periodic%20Trends_files/image002.jpg" width="300">
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### How To Read An Element
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<img src="https://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations/es0501/images/es0501_p6_readinginfo_b.gif" width="400">
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## History of The Atom
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|Person|Description|Picture|
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|:-----|:----------|:------|
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|Democritus|All matter can be divided up into smaller pieces until it reaches an unbreakable particle called an ATOM (cannot be cut)<br>He proposed atoms are of diffent sizes, in constant motion and separated by empty spaces||
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|Aristole|- Rejected Democritus ideas, believed all matter was made up the 4 elements, it was accepted for nearly 2000 years|<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Four_elements_representation.svg/1227px-Four_elements_representation.svg.png" width="500">|
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|John Dalton|- Billbard model, atoms of **different elements are different**<br>Atoms are never **created or destroyed**.<br> - Atoms of an element are identical|<img src="https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcR-AsCpeBvgYIQMSWuGCG7-Rdb8z5QC9Jb92jnCO_nYkI4snYG7" width="500">|
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|JJ Thomson|- Atoms contain negatively charged electrons, since atoms are neutral, the **rest of the atom is a positevly charged sphere**. <br> - Negatively charged electrons were **evenly distrubuted** throughout the atom.<br> - **Ray cathode experiment** - basically atoms were attracted to a postive end of the tube, so there most be negative charges in the atoms. <br> <br> <img src="https://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/thomsonexperiment2.png" width="300">|<img src="https://www.electrical4u.com/images/march16/1468862016.png" width="500">|
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|Ernest Rutherford|- Discovered that the postively charged **nucleus**. <br> - The nucleus was **surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons**<br> - Most of the atom was just space. <br> - **Gold foil experiement**, alpha particles (postively charged) shot at atom, some bounced off at weird angles, so there most be a postively charged thing there. <br> <br> <img src="http://historyoftheatom.files.wordpress.com/2015/02/gold-foil.jpg" width="300">|<img src="http://atomicmodeltimelinervmf.weebly.com/uploads/1/7/9/9/17998887/1823773_orig.jpg" width="500">|
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|Niels Bohr|- Discovered that electrons **orbit the nucleus in fixed paths**, each electron has a **definite** amount of energy, further from nucles = more energy.<br> - Electrons **cannot** jump orbit to orbit or release energy as light going down. <br> - Each orbit can hold a specifc amount of electrons, `2,8,8,2`, useful for the first 20 elements|<img src="https://s3.amazonaws.com/rapgenius/Bohr%20Atom.png" width="500">|
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|James Chadwick|- Discovered the neutron, mass of neutron = mass of proton (basically)<br> - Neutral atoms have **equal numbers** of protons and electrons.|<img src="https://01a4b5.medialib.edu.glogster.com/I28dU77RETpL5o21KLw0/media/43/432f51edf42bbf2082e35268160b789a7344a49f/screen-shot-2014-11-15-at-9-10-48-am.png" width="500">|
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## Carbon
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## Atoms
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- Subscripts - tells us how many of the atom are there, for example N<sub>2</sub> means there are 2 nitrongen atoms.
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- Use distrubutive property if there are brackets and a subscript, for example, (CO)<sub>2</sub> is equilivant to C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.
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- Atoms are stable if they have a full valence shell (noble gases)
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- Each family has the same amount of valence electrons as their family number, so `alkali metals` would have 1 valence electron, `alkaline earth metals` will have 2, `halogens will have` 7 and `noble gases` would have 8.
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- They will also have the same amount of protons as their `atomic number`.
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- **Number of protons = Number of electrons**.
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- **Number of neutrons = mass - atomic number/number of protons**.
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## Bohr-Rutherford / Lewis-Dot Diagrams
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- **Bohr-Rutherford**
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- Draw nucleus, and draw the apprioate number of orbits.
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- Put number of **protons** and **neutrons** in the nucleus.
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- Draw the correct number of electrons in each orbit
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<img src="https://d2jmvrsizmvf4x.cloudfront.net/LHJtmeuTDVQ4l2uelrkw_imgres.png" width="300">
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- **Lewis-Dot Diagrams**
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- Draw element symbol
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- Put the right number of valence electrons around the symbol, perferably in pairs
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<img src="https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-a7b2f5ac4b313c27d4bac65c1c8f0a30.webp" width="300">
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### Bonding
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- To combine 2 atoms, each element wants to be stable. So they each want a full valence shell, (outer shell) so they are stable.
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- They can either `gain`, `lose` or `share` electrons in order to become stable.
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- Example:
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- Oxygen and Hydrogen, in order to become stable, they all need 8 valence electrons. Hydrogen has 1, oxygen has 6, so we bring in another hyrdogen and we let them share all their electrons, turning into H<sub>2</sub>O, or water.
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<img src="https://www.seaturtlecamp.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/water-molecule-2.gif" width="300">
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- Use **arrows** to show gaining or losing electrons.
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- **Circle** to show sharing of electrons.
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## Naming of Ionic Bonds
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1. Write cation (metal) first
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2. Write anion (non-metal) second
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3. Change the ending of the non-metal to ```ide```.
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<img src="https://files.catbox.moe/014ff4.png" width="500">
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<br>
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<img src="https://files.catbox.moe/3nn8kx.png" width="505">
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## Decomposition
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- A chemical change used to break compounds down into simpler substances
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- Energy must be ADDED
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- Using electricity
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- Adding thermal energy
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## Catalyst
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- Substance that accelerates a chemical change without being consumed OR changed itself
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## Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide
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- On cuts/scraps
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- Blood has a catalyst = see bubbling O<sub>2</sub>
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- Cleans contact lenses
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- Bubbling removes dirt
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- Bleaches
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- React with compounds that provide color
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- RESULT = no colour (bleach blond hair/teeth)
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