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Simplifying and reducing information that is *literally copied word for word*

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Grade 10/Science/SNC2DZ/Unit 2: Biology.md
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@ -48,21 +48,20 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
### Nucleus ### Nucleus
- Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin` - Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin`
- DNA is a double helix that make genes - DNA is a double helix containing genes
- `Genes` are a complete set of instructions to make a complete product (typically proteins) - `Genes` are a full set of instructions in DNA to make either RNA or a protein
- `Genes`: one of the many sets of instructions, in your DNA, found on a **chromosome**, for making a functional product (mostly proteins)
- `Chromatin` is DNA wrapped tightly in protein - `Chromatin` is DNA wrapped tightly in protein
- `Chromosomes` are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only - `Chromosomes` are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only
- Surrounded by a double membrane - Surrounded by a double membrane
- Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores - Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins - Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins
- Humans have ~2 m of genes per cell per nucleus tightly wrapped
### Nucleolus ### Nucleolus
- Dense region of DNA located in the nucleus - Dense region of DNA located in the nucleus
- This area of DNA is specially for ribosomal DNA (rDNA), or DNA used to make ribosomes - This area of DNA is specially for ribosomal DNA (rDNA), or DNA used to make ribosomes
- Produce "large" and "small" subunits of ribosomes, which either form complete ribosomes in cytosol or mix with endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - Produce "large" and "small" subunits of ribosomes, which either form complete ribosomes in cytosol or mix with endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
- Is *not* surrounded by a membrane, literally is just same as rest of nucleus but denser
### Cytoplasm & Cytosol ### Cytoplasm & Cytosol
- `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain - `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain
@ -72,101 +71,70 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
## Endoplasmic Reticulum ## Endoplasmic Reticulum
- The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface
- Network of tubules and flattened sacs - Network of tubules and flattened sacs
- **Transport** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles - **Transports** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles
## Rouch Endoplasmic Reticulum ## Specific to Rough ER
- Appears "rough" due to the `ribosomes` attached to its outer surface - Appears "rough" due to the `ribosomes` attached to its outer surface
- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus - Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
- Located next to `Golgi apparatus` - Located next to `Golgi apparatus`
- `Ribosomes` in rough ER synthesize proteins - `Ribosomes` in rough ER **synthesize proteins**
- Only specific proteins are synthesized by ribosomes of rough ER - Transports synthesized proteins to `Golgi apparatus` for packaging and distribution
- Proteins synthesized in `ribosomes` of rough ER are always sent to either `Golgi apparatus` via `vesicles` or stay in `rough ER`
- `Ribosomes` attach to and leave the `rough ER` regularly
- About half the cell's proteins are produced here - About half the cell's proteins are produced here
- **Modify, fold, and fix proteins** - Folds, fixes and **modifies both newly-created and pre-existing proteins** somewhat like **proof-reading**
### Functions ## Specific to Smooth ER
- **Protein synthesis**
- About half of the cell's proteins are made here, by the `ribosomes`
- **Protein movement**
- Proteins are transported by vesicles throught the cell to other organelles, like the `golgi apparatus`
- **Protein "Proof-Reading"**
- pre-existing proteins can enter the `rough-ER` for **modification**
## Smooth ER
- Does not synthesize proteins - Does not synthesize proteins
- Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes` - Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes`
- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus - Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
- Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol) - Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol)
- Metabolises carbohydrates - Metabolises carbohydrates
## Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Complex) ## Golgi Apparatus
- **Receives, modifies and transports** proteins that were produced by the `rough-E.R` - Also known as Golgi body, Golgi complex, etc.
- **Receives, modifies and transports** proteins that were produced by the rough ER
- **Packages** proteins into `vesicles` and sends them `cell membrane` for export - **Packages** proteins into `vesicles` and sends them `cell membrane` for export
## Lysosome ## Lysosome
- `White blood` cell uses the cytoskeleton to reach out and swallow up a bacterium, then uses `lysosomes` to break it down - Spherical vesicle that containing `enzymes`
- Spherical vesicle that contains `enzymes` - **Digests and kills** foreign matter which is then excreted
- Digests and kills foreign matter which is then excreted - E.g., white blood cells use lysosomes to kill bacteria then spit it out
- Digests and breaks down old and unused material to be recycled - **Digests and breaks down** old and unused material/non-functional organelles as needed
- Digests and breaks down old or non-functional organelles as needed - If lysosome ruptures everything dies, hence they are known as "suicude sacs"
- Only plays a very minor role in cell suicide (`apoptosis`)
- If lysosome does rupture (accidentally) everything dies
### Functions ## Mitochondria
- **Digestion** - **Singular form is "mitochondrion"**
- Food or foriegn matter (invaders) are swallowed up and executed
- **Recycling**
- When an organelle "dies" `lysosomes` will recycle the dea material back into raw materials cellular suicide
- **Cellular suicicde**
- This is not good for the cell (obviously, but it is good for us. (E.g reasons why most of us don't have web feet/hands)
## Midtochondria
- **Plural is "mitochondria"**
- Contains an inner and outer membrane - Contains an inner and outer membrane
- Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule) - ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule)
- ATP cannot be stored - ATP cannot be stored
- Mitochondria have their own DNA
## Cytoskeleton ## Cytoskeleton
- The cytosekleton **is** the skeleton of the cell, found in the `cytosol`, made up of protein.
- The cytoskeleton is also like the muscular system, able to change teh sahpe of cells in a flash
- Made of protein filaments - Made of protein filaments
- Maintains and changes cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system - Maintains and changes cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system
- Moves cells - Moves cells
- Modifies and adjusts cell structure as needed
- Chemicals can travel along cytoskeleton, e.g., organelles, vesicles, etc. - Chemicals can travel along cytoskeleton, e.g., organelles, vesicles, etc.
## Organelles Specific To Animal Cells ## Organelles specific to animal cells
1. centrioles and centrosomes
2. lysosomes
### Centrioles and Centrosomes ### Centrioles and centrosomes
- Involved in the process of cell division for animal cells, plant cells **DO NOT** use centrioles
- Made of same protein as cytoskeleton - Made of same protein as cytoskeleton
- A centrosome is a pair of centrioles - A centrosome is a pair of centrioles
- Very important to cell division - Important to cell division in animal cells
- Split chromosomes apart after DNA has been replicated into daughter cells
- Helps regulate cell division
- Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively) - Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively)
### Lysosomes ### Lysosomes
- Present in all animal cells but not present in the cells of most plants
## Organelles Specific To Plant Cells ## Organelles specific to plant cells
1. Cell wall
2. Chloroplast
3. Central Vacuole
### Cell wall ### Cell wall
- Provides structure and prevents cell rupture - Provides structure and prevents cell rupture
- Can be tough, flexible, and/or rigid - Can be tough, flexible, and/or rigid
- Permeable to small molecules
- Made of cellulose (type of sugar) - Made of cellulose (type of sugar)
- Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists - Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists
### Chloroplast ### Chloroplast
- The `solar panel` of the plant cell. - The `solar panel` of the plant cell
- Conducts photosynthesis - Conducts photosynthesis
- All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts - All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts
- Looks green - Looks green
@ -175,15 +143,37 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
- Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell - Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell
- Contains water - Contains water
- Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions) - Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions)
- **Provides the cell with shape** - Maintains cell shape and resistance
- Plant cells that lack turgor pressure (e.g., celery left in fridge) become flaccid
## Cell division
### Purpose
#### Growth
- Cells have maximum size before transportation of substances within cell becomes inefficient
- Cells transport chemicals (e.g., nutrients) via `diffusion`
#### Reproduction
- Single-cellular organisms reproduce via division asexually
- Multicellular organisms reproduce via combining two germ cells ("sex cells") that contain half the DNA each of two organisms
- This is sexual
#### Repair
- Cells naturally die and need to be replaced
- e.g., red blood cells, hair cells, skin, injuries
### Cell cycle
- Interphase
- G1
- S
- G2
- Mitosis
- Occurs only in eukaryotic cells
- Prophase
- Prometaphase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokinesis
- G0
- Cell no longer divides
- Outisde of cell cycle