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fixing some many mistakes left by eggy, and making things clear, more detailed, and more in-depth.

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Grade 10/Science/SNC2DZ/Unit 2: Biology.md
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@ -40,28 +40,30 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
### Cell Membrane ### Cell Membrane
- Controls what substances enter/leave the cell selectively via various receptors/osmosis - Controls what substances **enter/leave** the cell selectively via various receptors/osmosis
- Allows nutrients to enter - Allows **nutrients** to enter
- Allows waste products to leave - Allows **waste products** to leave (removal of waste)
- Surrounds and holds other organelles in cell - Surrounds and holds other organelles in cell
- Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones) - Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones)
- Must transport food (ATP), nutrients into the cell
### Nucleus ### Nucleus
- Is the control center of the cell
- Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin` - Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin`
- DNA is a double helix containing genes - DNA is a double helix containing genes
- `Genes` are a full set of instructions in DNA to make either RNA or a protein - `Genes` are a full set of instructions in DNA to make either RNA or a protein, they are **found** in the DNA
- `Chromatin` is DNA wrapped tightly in protein - `Chromatin`: is DNA **wrapped tightly** in protein
- `Chromosomes` are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only - `Chromosomes`: are even more tightly wrapped `chromatin` used in cell division only, formed when `DNA` **condenses** in `mitosis`
- Surrounded by a double membrane - Surrounded by a double membrane
- Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores - Substances enter and exit the nucleus via `nuclear pores`. `Nuclear pores` are holes in the membrane that allow `proteins` and `nucleic acids` into the `cytoplasm`
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins - Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins
- Humans have ~2 m of genes per cell per nucleus tightly wrapped - Humans have ~2 meters of genes per cell per nucleus tightly wrapped
### Nucleolus ### Nucleolus
- Dense region of DNA located in the nucleus - Dense region of DNA located in the nucleus (codes `ribosomes`; enzyemes that make protein)
- This area of DNA is specially for ribosomal DNA (rDNA), or DNA used to make ribosomes - This area of DNA is specially for ribosomal DNA (rDNA), or DNA used to make ribosomes
- Produce "large" and "small" subunits of ribosomes, which either form complete ribosomes in cytosol or mix with endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) - Produce "large" and "small" subunits of `ribosomes`, which either form complete `ribosomes` in `cytosol` or mix with `endoplasmic reticulum`, forming `rough endoplasmic reticulum` (RER)
### Cytoplasm & Cytosol ### Cytoplasm & Cytosol
- `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain - `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain
@ -69,7 +71,7 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
- `Cytoplasm` is the `cytosol` along with everything in a cell, excluding the nucleus - `Cytoplasm` is the `cytosol` along with everything in a cell, excluding the nucleus
## Endoplasmic Reticulum ## Endoplasmic Reticulum
- The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of `tubules` and **flattened sacs** with a <b>*rough*</b> appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface
- Network of tubules and flattened sacs - Network of tubules and flattened sacs
- **Transports** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles - **Transports** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles
@ -83,11 +85,11 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
- Folds, fixes and **modifies both newly-created and pre-existing proteins** somewhat like **proof-reading** - Folds, fixes and **modifies both newly-created and pre-existing proteins** somewhat like **proof-reading**
## Specific to Smooth ER ## Specific to Smooth ER
- Does not synthesize proteins - **Does not** synthesize proteins
- Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes` - Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes`
- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus - Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
- Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol) - Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol)
- Metabolises carbohydrates - **Metabolises** carbohydrates
## Golgi Apparatus ## Golgi Apparatus
- Also known as Golgi body, Golgi complex, etc. - Also known as Golgi body, Golgi complex, etc.
@ -107,73 +109,100 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
- Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule) - ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule)
- ATP cannot be stored - ATP cannot be stored
- ATP is needed for daily function of the cell
## Cytoskeleton ## Cytoskeleton
- Made of protein filaments - Made of **protein filaments**
- Maintains and changes cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system - **Maintains** and **changes** cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system
- Moves cells - Moves cells
- Modifies and adjusts cell structure as needed - Modifies and adjusts cell structure as needed
- Chemicals can travel along cytoskeleton, e.g., organelles, vesicles, etc. - Chemicals can travel along `cytoskeleton`, e.g., `organelles`, `vesicles`, etc.
## Organelles specific to animal cells ## Organelles specific to animal cells
1. Centrioles and centrosomes
2. Lysosomes
### Centrioles and centrosomes ### Centrioles and centrosomes
- Made of same protein as cytoskeleton - Made of same protein as `cytoskeleton`
- A centrosome is a pair of centrioles
- Important to cell division in animal cells - Important to cell division in animal cells
- Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively) - Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively)
### Lysosomes ### Lysosomes
- Explained before.
## Organelles specific to plant cells ## Organelles specific to plant cells
1. Cell wall
2. Chloroplast
3. Central Vacuole
### Cell wall ### Cell wall
- Provides structure and prevents cell rupture - Provides **structure** and prevents **cell rupture**
- Can be tough, flexible, and/or rigid - A more stronger, thicker, rigit version of the `cell membrane`
- Made of cellulose (type of sugar) - Made of **cellulose** (type of sugar)
- Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists - Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists
- The antibotic **Penicillin** works by destroying the cell walls of bacteria, thereby killing the bateria
### Chloroplast ### Chloroplast
- The `solar panel` of the plant cell - The **solar panel** of the plant cell
- Conducts photosynthesis - Conducts **photosynthesis**
- All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts - All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts
- Looks green - Looks green
- Parts of the plant that do not photosynthesize do not have chloroplasts
### Central Vacuole ### Central Vacuole
- Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell - Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell
- Contains water - Contains water
- Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions) - Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions)
- Maintains cell shape and resistance - Maintains cell shape and resistance
- Plant cells that lack turgor pressure (e.g., celery left in fridge) become flaccid - Plant cells that lack **turgor pressure** (e.g., celery left in fridge) become **flaccid**
## Cell division ## Cell Division
### Purpose
#### Growth
- Cells have maximum size before transportation of substances within cell becomes inefficient
- Cells transport chemicals (e.g., nutrients) via `diffusion`
#### Reproduction ## Purpose
- Single-cellular organisms reproduce via division asexually
### 1. Reproduction
- Single-cellular organisms reproduce via division **asexually**
- Multicellular organisms reproduce via combining two germ cells ("sex cells") that contain half the DNA each of two organisms - Multicellular organisms reproduce via combining two germ cells ("sex cells") that contain half the DNA each of two organisms
- This is sexual - This is **sexual**
#### Repair ### 2. Growth
- Cells have maximum size before transportation of substances within cell becomes **inefficient**, due to **larger cells** decreasing efficiency of `diffusion`
- Cells transport chemicals (e.g., nutrients) via `diffusion`, this **limits cell size**
- The only way to maintain proper function and get bigger is to **add more cells**
### 3. Repair
- **Organisms need to repair cells to stay alive and maintain proper health**
- Millions of cells are replaced everyday
- Cells naturally die and need to be replaced - Cells naturally die and need to be replaced
- e.g., red blood cells, hair cells, skin, injuries - e.g., red blood cells, hair cells, skin, injuries, broken bones
### Cell cycle ## Cell cycle
- Interphase - **Interphase**
- G1 - **G1** (normal groth and function),
- S - Prepare for cell divison
- G2 - Duplication of DNA **S**,
- Mitosis - Duplication of organelles **G2**
- **Mitosis**
- Occurs only in eukaryotic cells - Occurs only in eukaryotic cells
- Prophase - P-MAT: Prophase Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Cytokinesis
- Prometaphase - nuclear divison
- Metaphase - **Cytokinesis**
- Anaphase - **cell division**
- Telophase - **G0**
- Cytokinesis
- G0
- Cell no longer divides - Cell no longer divides
- Outisde of cell cycle - Outisde of cell cycle
### Mitosis
- PMAT (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
## Cell Specialization
- `Zygote`: A one-celled organism formed from the fertilization of an egg by a sperm cell
- A cell's position in the `gastrula` (outer, middle, inner layer) will determine the fate of the cell, or its potiental.
- (LOCATION LOCATION LOCAION!)
### Stem Cells
- They are an **unspecialized** cell that has the potential to become one of several types of cells.
- After cell division, either both can become stem cells or one stays as a stem cell and the other becomes a specialized cell
-