hist: logical fallacies

docs/chw3mz.md

@@ -49,6 +49,78 @@ The abundance of **diverse** data allows for greater perspectives to be gleaned
  - **Secondary** data is an interpretation of a primary source(s) with its own argument — e.g., articles, thesises, documentaries, etc.
  - **Tertiary** data compiles secondary sources and should only be used for context — e.g., wikis, textbooks, encyclopedias, etc.
 
+### Logic
+
+!!! definition
+    - **Logic** is the study of rules of inference and the analysis of arguments.
+    - A **conclusion** is a proposition that follows all others.
+    - An **inference** is a connection that acts as a logical leap between a premise and a conclusion.
+    - **Logically consistent** statements follow the three laws of thought and do not contradict.
+    - **Logically contradicting** statements do not follow the three laws of thought.
+    - The **validity** of a statement is its correctness of reasoning via the laws of thought.
+    - A **sound** argument is of valid form and has a true premise.
+    - An **argument** is a simple statement or disagreement that attempts to reach a conclusion by proving something true with evidence. Good arguments are sound, valid, clear, and avoids hasty conclusions.
+
+**Aristotle** laid the foundations for the principles of formal logic and laid three laws of thought.
+
+ - **Law of identity**: everything is identical with itself.
+ - **Law of noncontradiction**: contradictory statements cannot both be true.
+ - **Law of excluded middle**: any proposition must either be true or false.
+
+!!! example
+ - Identity: A football is a football.
+ - Noncontradiction: If water and oil do not mix, and substance A mixes in water, it must not be oil.
+ - Excluded middle: The Nintendo Switch must either be or not be a potato.
+
+**Deductive** arguments connect a general statement to a more specific statement based on laws, rules, and/or widely accepted principles.
+
+!!! example
+    As monkeys like bananas and Lucy is a monkey, Lucy must like bananas.
+
+**Inductive** arguments connect a specific statement to a more general statement based on **empiric** data.
+
+!!! example
+    As three of the eight billion humans on Earth are mortal, all humans must be mortal.
+
+### Logical fallacies
+
+ - An **ad hominem** argument attacks the arguer or anything else instead of the argument.
+    - e.g., *"You're a Nintendo fanboy; of course you think that."*
+ - Arguments that **appeal to authority** use the opinion of an authority on a topic is used as evidence to support an argument.
+    - e.g., *"The President of the United States said that we should inject disinfectant into ourselves, so it must be a good idea!"*
+ - Arguments that **appeal to emotion** manipulate the recipient's emotions typically via loaded language to win an argument.
+    - e.g., *"Those island devils have robbed us of our sleep at night — they must be eradicated!"*
+ - Arguments that **appeal to force** use threats to win an argument.
+    - e.g., *"I'm right, aren't I?" said the jock, flexing her biceps threateningly.*
+ - Arguments that **appeal to ignorance** assert a proposition is true because it has not been proven false.
+    - e.g., *"My laptop must secretly have chips in it that no one can detect from aliens because we don't know if there* aren't *undetectable chips in there."*
+ - **Bandwagoning or herding** arguments assert that a conclusion is true because it is accepted by most people. This is a result of confirmation bias.
+    - e.g., *"Ma, everyone else is jumping off that bridge, so why shouldn't I?"*
+ - A fallacy of **accident** wrongly applies a general rule to a specific exception.
+    - e.g., *Since surgeons cut people with knives and cutting people with knives is a crime, surgeons are criminals.*
+ - An argument that **begs the question** has circular reasoning by having premises that assume its conclusion.
+    - e.g., *Acid eats through your skin because it is corrosive.*
+ - **Cherry picking** occurs evidence that supports the conclusion is pointed out while those that contradict the conclusion are ignored or withheld.
+    - e.g., *"Look at these perfect cherries — their tree must be in perfect condition!"*
+ - A fallacy of **converse accident** wrongly applies a specific exception to a general rule.
+    - e.g., *As the Nintendo Switch, a game console, is portable, all game consoles must be portable.*
+ - A **complex question** embeds a proposition that is accepted when a direct answer is given to the question. It is also known as a trick question.
+    - e.g., *Have you stopped abusing children yet?*
+ - Arguments with a **false cause** incorrectly assume a cause to an effect.
+    - e.g., imagining correlation implies causation.
+ - **Hasty generalisations** appear in inductive generalisations based on insufficient evidence.
+    - e.g., *Since the first seven odd numbers are prime or square, all prime numbers must be prime or square.*
+ - Arguments that **miss the point** provide an irrelevant conclusion that fails to address the issue of the question.
+    - e.g., *"Is it allowed?" "It should be allowed because it's nowhere near as bad as alcohol."*
+ - A **no true Scotsman** (appeal to purity) fallacy takes a generalisation and doubles down to protect it by excluding counterexamples typically via emotionally charged language.
+    - e.g., *"Although your father is a Scotsman and dances, no* true *Scotsman would dance."*
+ - Arguments with **recency bias** put greater importance on recent data over historic data.
+    - e.g., *As GameStop's stock has risen over the past few days dramatically, it will continue to do so.*
+ - **Red herrings** change the issue of subject away from the original question.
+    - e.g., *You should support the new housing bill. We can't continue to see people living in the streets; we must have cheaper housing.*
+ - A **straw man** argument misrepresents the opposing position by making their arguments sound more extreme.
+    - e.g., *"We should relax laws on immigration." "The instant we let millions of people through our border is when our country falls."*
+
 ## Resources
 
  - [Textbook: Origins and Development of Authoritarian and Single-Party States](/resources/g11/textbook-authoritarian-states.pdf)