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# Unit 3: Biology
## Terms
- `Habitat`: Placce where organisms live
- `Biotic`: Living components (their remains AND features)
- Bears, insects, micro-organisms, nests
- `Abiotic`: Non-living components
- Physical/chemical components
- Temperature, wind, humidity, precipitation, minerals, air pressure
- `Sustainability`: **The ability to maintain natural ecological conditions without interruption, weakening, or loss of value.**
- `Community`: Individual from all of the DIFFERENT populations (communities of different species)
- `Ecosystem`: Term given to the community and its interactions with the abiotic environment
- `Sustainable Ecosystem`: An ecosystem that is maintained through natural processes
- `Ecological niche`: Every species interacts with other species and with its environment in a unique way. This is its role in an ecosystem (e.g. what it eats, what eats it, how it behaves, etc.)
- `Biodiversity`: The variety of life in a particular ecosystem, also known as biological diversity.
- Canada is home to about 140 000 to 200 000 species of plants and animals. Only 71 000 have been identified.
- `Species Richness`: the number of species in an area.
- Diverse ecosystem = high species richness.
- Higher close to the equator.
- Ex. Amazon rainforest home to more than 200 species of hummingbirds, Ontario only has a single species.
- `Population`: A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same place and time.
- Population often change due to both **natural and artifical** factors (human activity).
- `Carry Capcity`: The maximum population size of a **particular species** that a given ecosystem can sustain.
- `Pollution`: harmful comtaminants released into the enviornment.
- `Bioremediation`: the use of micro-organisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants.
- `Photosynthesis`: The process in which the Sun’s energy (LIGHT) is converted (put together with) into chemical energy AS GLUCOSE (sugar).
- `Succession`: The gradual and usually predictable changes in the composition of a community and the abiotic condtions following a disturbance.
- `Producer`: Organism that makes its own energy-rich food using the Sun’s energy.
- `Consumer`: Organism that obtains its energy from consuming other organisms.
- `Eutrophication`: Overfertilzation of staganat bodies of water with nutrients
- `Heterotrophs` Organisms that feed on others
- `Bioaccumulation`: The process by which **toxins accumulate in the bodies** of animals. (Eg, DDT). **They cannot be easily excreted from the body.**
- `Bioamplification`: The **increase in concentration of a substance** such as a pesticide as we move up trophic level within a food web. **It happens because of bioaccumulation**. (Sometimes called `biomagnification`).
- `Oligotrophic` Bodies of water that are **low** in nutrients. (clear water, opposite to `eutrophic`).
- `Watershed` (drainage basin): Area of land where **ALL WATER** drains to a single river or lake.
- `Invasive Species`: A non-native species whose intentional or accidental introduction negatively impacts the natural environment.
## The Spheres of Earth
### Atmosphere
- The layer of `gases` above Earth's surface, extending upward for hundreds of kilometers.
@ -349,44 +383,12 @@
- Consists of:
- **Rocks and minerals that make up mountains, ocean floors, and Earth's solid landscape**
-Thickness: **50 - 150km**.
### Terms
- `Biotic`: Living components (their remains AND features)
- Bears, insects, micro-organisms, nests
- `Abiotic`: Non-living components
- Physical/chemical components
- Temperature, wind, humidity, precipitation, minerals, air pressure
- `Sustainability`: **The ability to maintain natural
ecological conditions without interruption,
weakening, or loss of value.**
- `Community`
- Individual from all of the DIFFERENT populations (communities of different species)
- `Ecosystem`
- Term given to the community and its interactions with the abiotic environment
- `Sustainable Ecosystem`
- An ecosystem that is maintained through natural processes
- `Ecological niche`:
- Every species interacts with other species and with its environment in a unique way. This is its role in an ecosystem (e.g. what it eats, what eats it, how it behaves, etc.)
- `Biodiversity`: The variety of life in a particular ecosystem, also known as biological diversity.
- Canada is home to about 140 000 to 200 000 species of plants and animals. Only 71 000 have been identified.
- `Species Richness`: the number of species in an area.
- Diverse ecosystem = high species richness.
- Higher close to the equator.
- Ex. Amazon rainforest home to more than 200 species of hummingbirds, Ontario only has a single species.
- `Population`: A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same place and time.
- Population often change due to both **natural and artifical** factors (human activity).
- `Carry Capcity`: The maximum population size of a **particular species** that a given ecosystem can sustain.
- `Pollution`: harmful comtaminants released into the enviornment.
- `Bioremediation`: the use of micro-organisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants.
- `Photosynthesis`: The process in which the Sun’s energy (LIGHT) is converted (put together with) into chemical energy AS GLUCOSE (sugar).
- `Succession`: The gradual and usually predictable changes in the composition of a community and the abiotic condtions following a disturbance.
- `Producer`: Organism that makes its own energy-rich food using the Sun’s energy.
- `Consumer`: Organism that obtains its energy from consuming other organisms.
- `Eutrophication`: Overfertilzation of staganat bodies of water with nutrients
## Types of Energy
## Energy Flow
- `Law of Conservation of Energy`: Energy **can not** be **created** or **destroyed**. It can only be transformed or transfeered.
- Note that Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration are nearly **THE EXACT OPPOSITE**.
### Types of Energy
- #### Radiant Energy
- Energy that travels through EMPTY SPACE
- #### Thermal Energy
@ -400,28 +402,14 @@ weakening, or loss of value.**
- Used by living organisms to perform functions (growth, reproduction, etc.)
- MUST be replaced as it is used
## It starts with the sun …
- Energy radiates from the sun (UV)
- Earth is hit with the UV or light energy
- 70% of radiant energy is absorbed by `Hydrosphere` & `Lithosphere`
- Converted into **thermal** energy
- Warms the atmosphere, evaporates water & produces winds
- What happens with the rest?
- Approx. `30%` is reflected back into space
- `0.023%` absorbed by living organisms through photosynthesis
## Why is Photosynthesis important?
### Photosynthesis
- Plants use the sun to make energy in the form of glucose or sugar.
- Animals cannot make their own food (glucose, energy)
- Must get our food from plants.
- Plants are the first step in the food chain
- Oxygen released during photosynthesis is necessary for all living things
## Cellular Respiration
### Cellular Respiration
- Process of converting sugar into carbon dioxide, water and energy
- Makes stored energy available for use
- Takes place in the mitochondria
@ -434,39 +422,37 @@ weakening, or loss of value.**
- ALL humans are consumers (unless you’re the hulk)
## Steps in Cellular Respiration
#### Steps in Cellular Respiration
- Mitochondria takes in nutrients
- Glucose and Oxygen
- Breaks both nutrients down
- Creates energy for the cell
- #### REVERSE of Photosynthesis
- Sugar breaks down into **CARBON DIOXIDE** and **WATER**
- Release of energy when this happens
## Feeding Relationship
## Feeding Relationships
- Energy flow through an ecosystem in one direction, from the sun or inorganic compounds to autotrophs (producers) and then to various hetrotrophs (consumers).
- Food are a series of steps in which organisms transfers energy by eating or eaten (pg. 43).
- Food webs show the complex interactions within an ecosystem (pg. 44).
- Each step in a food chain or web is called a `trophic` level. Producers make up the first step, consumers make up the higher levels. E.g. first trophic level are producers, second trophic level are primary consumers, etc.
- Detrivores + scavengers are off to side (with all arrows pointing on it.
- **First Trophic Level**: `Plants`.
- `10% rule`, Only 10% of energy is stored in each organism, 90% of energy is lost (heat consumption).
## ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
## Ecological Pyramids
- Food chains and food webs do not give any information about the numbers of organisms involved.
- This information can be shown through ecological pyramids.
- An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the amount of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food web or food chain.
<img src="https://www.tutorialspoint.com/environmental_studies/images/upright_pyramid.jpg" width="300">
|Pyramid|Description|Picture|
|:------|:----------|:------|
|Pyramid of Biomass|Show the **total** amout of `living tissue` available at each `trophic` level. This shows the amount of tissue available for the next `trophic` level. <br> <br> Biomass is preferred to the use of numbers of organisms because individual organisms can vary in size. It is the `total mass` **(not the size)** that is important. Sometimes it’s inverted. <br> <br> Pyramid of biomass records the total dry organic matter of organisms at each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem.|<img src="http://earth.rice.edu/mtpe/bio/biosphere/topics/energy/biomass_pyramid.gif" width="800">
|Numbers Pyramids|Shows the number of organisms at each trophic level per unit area of an ecosystem. <br> <br> Because each trophic level harvests only about `one tenth` of the energy from the level below, it can support only about one `10th` the amount of living tissue. <br> <br> **`Can be inverted`**: 1 large tree supports thousands of organisms living on it <br> <br> Pyramid of numbers displays the number of individuals|<img src="https://d321jvp1es5c6w.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/imce-user-gen/pyramidnumbers2.png" width="400">|
|Energy Pyramid|Shows the amount of energy input to each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem over an extended period.<br> <br> **CANNOT** be inverted, due to energy transfers<br> <br> **Only 10% of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level**|<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ecological_Pyramid.svg/1200px-Ecological_Pyramid.svg.png" width="500">|
|Numbers Pyramids|Shows the number of organisms at each trophic level per unit area of an ecosystem. <br> <br> Because each trophic level harvests only about `one tenth` of the energy from the level below, it can support only about one `10th` the amount of living tissue. <br> <br> **`Can be inverted`**: 1 large tree supports thousands of organisms living on it <br> <br> Pyramid of numbers displays the number of individuals annualy.|<img src="https://d321jvp1es5c6w.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/imce-user-gen/pyramidnumbers2.png" width="400">|
|Energy Pyramid|Shows the amount of energy input to each trophic level in a given area of an ecosystem over an extended period.<br> <br> **CANNOT** be inverted, due to energy transfers<br> <br> **Only 10% of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level.**|<img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ecological_Pyramid.svg/1200px-Ecological_Pyramid.svg.png" width="500">|
**NOTE FOR ENERGY PYRAMIDS**: In nature, ecological
efficiency varies from `5%` to `20%` energy available between successive trophic levels (`95%` to `80%` loss). About 10% efficiency is a general rule. `Rule of 10’s` at each level.
@ -484,23 +470,19 @@ efficiency varies from `5%` to `20%` energy available between successive trophic
### Key Terms:
- Water moves from one reservoir to another (ocean to
atmosphere, river to lake)
- Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Percolation (Infiltration), Run-off
- Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Percolation (Infiltration, water seeping into ground), Run-off, transpiration (plants losing water to air)
- Forms: Solid (ice), Liquid (water), Gas (vapour)
### STEPS/PROCESS:
- Exchange of energy leads to:
- Temperature Change, Climate
- Condenses 🡪 occurs during cooler temp
- Evaporation 🡪 happens during warmer temp
- **Evaporation**:
- purifies the water
- New fresh water for the land
- **Flow of liquid water and ice**
- Transports minerals across the globe
- **Reshaping the geological features of Earth**
- Erosion and sedimentation
@ -515,9 +497,10 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Fourth most abundant element in universe
- Building block of all living things
- Main Pathway – in and out of living matter
-
### STEPS/PROCESSES
- All living organisms contain carbon
- All living organisms contain carbon.
- CO<sub>2</sub> is a waste product of cellular respiration
- Plants use carbon dioxide and water to form simple sugars (photosynthesis)
- Light Energy --> Chemical Energy
@ -547,8 +530,6 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Atmopspheric nitrogen = N<sub>2</sub>
- Most living organisms are `unable` to use this form of nitrogen
- Therefore, must be **converted** to a usable form!
### STEPS/PROCESSES
<img src="https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lab-11methodsforestimatingdenitrificationprocess-130414125752-phpapp01/95/lab11-methods-for-estimating-denitrification-process-4-638.jpg?cb=1365944316" witdh="100">
@ -597,7 +578,7 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
1. `Density dependent factors`
2. `Density independent factors`
## Density Independent Factors
### Density Independent Factors
- DIF’s can affect a population no matter what its density is. The effect of the factor (such as weather) on the size of the population **does not** depend on the **original size** of the population.
- Examples:
- unusual weather
@ -605,7 +586,7 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- seasonal cycles
- certain human activities—such as damming rivers and clear-cutting forests
## Density Dependent Factors
### Density Dependent Factors
- DDF’s affect a population **ONLY** when it reaches a certain size. The effect of the factor (such as disease) on the size of the population depends on the **original size** of the population
- Examples:
- Competition
@ -617,49 +598,48 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
1. **Symbiosis**
- Two different organisms associate with each other in a close way.
- Is the interaction between members of `two different species` that live together in a close association.
- Types
- **Mutualism (+/+)**
- Both species benefit from the relationship.
- (eg. human intestine and good bacteria, bees and flowers, clownfish and sea anemone, cattle egret and cow).
- **Commensalism (+/0)**
- one species benefits, the other is **unaffected**.
- (eg. beaver cutting down trees, whales and barancles).
- **Parasitism (-/+)**
- one species is harmed, the other **benefits**.
- (eg. lice and humans, mosquito and humans).
- **Competition (-/-)**
- neither species benefits. Can be harmed. (-/-).
- **Neutralism (0/0)**
- both species are unaffected (unlikely).
- True neutralism is extremely unlikely or even impossible to prove. One cannot assert positively that there is absolutely no competition between or benefit to either species.
- Example: fish and dandelion
<table class="table" style="max-width:80%">
<tr>
<th><b>+</b></th>
<td><b>Parasitism and Predation</b></td>
<td><b>Commensalism</b></td>
<td><b>Mutalism</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b>0</b></th>
<td></td>
<td><b>Neutralism</b></td>
<td><b>Commensalism</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b>-</b></th>
<td><b>Competition</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>Parasitism and Predation</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th></th>
<th><b>-</b></th>
<th><b>0</b></th>
<th><b>+</b></th>
</tr>
</table>
- **Mutualism (+/+)**
- Both species benefit from the relationship.
- (eg. human intestine and good bacteria, bees and flowers, clownfish and sea anemone, cattle egret and cow).
- **Commensalism (+/0)**
- one species benefits, the other is **unaffected**.
- (eg. beaver cutting down trees, whales and barancles).
- **Parasitism (-/+)**
- one species is harmed, the other **benefits**.
- (eg. lice and humans, mosquito and humans).
- **Competition (-/-)**
- neither species benefits. Can be harmed. (-/-).
- **Neutralism (0/0)**
- both species are unaffected (unlikely).
- True neutralism is extremely unlikely or even impossible to prove. One cannot assert positively that there is absolutely no competition between or benefit to either species.
- Example: fish and dandelion
<table class="table" style="max-width:80%">
<tr>
<th><b>+</b></th>
<td><b>Parasitism and Predation</b></td>
<td><b>Commensalism</b></td>
<td><b>Mutalism</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b>0</b></th>
<td></td>
<td><b>Neutralism</b></td>
<td><b>Commensalism</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b>-</b></th>
<td><b>Competition</b></td>
<td></td>
<td><b>Parasitism and Predation</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th></th>
<th><b>-</b></th>
<th><b>0</b></th>
<th><b>+</b></th>
</tr>
</table>
2. **Competition**
- Individuals compete for limited resources
@ -682,7 +662,42 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
## Candian Biomes
<img src="https://slideplayer.com/slide/12708159/76/images/41/Canada%E2%80%99s+Biomes+Mountain+Forest+Tundra+Boreal+Forest+Grassland.jpg" width="800">
## Ecosystem Services
### Tundra
* Most **NORTHERN** biome of Canada.
* Low temperatures + lots of **PERMAFROST**
* Low decomposition rate.
* Plants grow slower due to cold
* `Species`: Polar bears, Caribou, Arctic foxes.
### Boreal Forest
* **Largest** biome in Canada.
* Warmer weather+plenty rainfall.
* Acidic Soil - Limits variety of plants + slows down decomposition.
* `Species` Grey wolves, conifers, moss, black bears.
### Grassland
* Moderate rainfall (supports grass not trees).
* Dry $`\rightarrow`$ Fire $`\rightarrow`$ Fire prevents larges trees from growing.
* Very **Fertile** black soil (high decomposition rate)
* Large portions of this biome are replaced by farms in Canada.
* `Species`: Bison, Snakes, fescue grasses, voles.
### Temperate Deciduous Forest
* Layers of canopy trees, understorey trees, shrubs, ground vegetation.
* Variety oof plants + species.
* Fast decomposition rate (warm temperatures).
* Large portions of this biome used by humans for cities.
* `Species`: Shrews, decidious trees, deer, black bears.
### Mountain Forest
* Temperatures vary with elevation
* Windy + cool summers
* Heavy precipitation on leeward side of mountains
* `Species` Elk, cougar, large coniferous trees, ferns.
## Introducing Ecosystems
- Most ecosystems are **SUSTAINABLE**.
### Ecosystem Services
- **Cultural Services**
- Benefits relating to our enjoyment of the environment.
- Ex. Recreational, aesthetic and spiritual experiences when we interact with natural surroundings.
@ -703,7 +718,7 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Protect land from storms along coasts where wave damage erodes the shoreline.
- Mangroves
### Monetary Value of Ecosystem Services
#### Monetary Value of Ecosystem Services
- Very difficult to put a dollar value to it.
- Dollar value of cleaning the air/water, moderating climate and providing paper fibre, medicines and other products is HIGH.
@ -711,7 +726,7 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Provides valuable services that are free and renewable.
## Successions
### Successions
- Natural ecosystems are in a state of equilibrium (their biotic and abiotic features remain relatively constant over time).
- Equilibrium is established when abiotic conditions are stable.
- Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are balanced.
@ -727,7 +742,7 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Results in gradual changes as plants, animals, fungi and micro organisms become established in an area.
- In both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
### Benefits of Succession
#### Benefits of Succession
- Provides a mechanism by which ecosystems maintain their long term sustainability.
- Allows ecosystems to recover from natural or human caused disturbances.
- Offers hope (New Orleans, New Jersey, Florida, Puerto Rico).
@ -737,7 +752,16 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- Disturbances can be repaired through human actions that support the natural processes of succession.
## Species at Risk
### Human Impacts To Species
- Increase rate of **EXTINCT** species.
- HIPPO
- Habitat destruction + fragmentation (divide lands into pieces)
- Invasive species.
- Pollution + pesticides.
- Over Population
- Overexploitation (overfishing, overhunting etc).
#### Status of Endangered Life in Canda
- Do not have to be driven to extinction for there to be ecological consequences.
- Population falls below critical level = ecological niche can no longer be filled.
- Consequences for abiotic and biotic features.
@ -745,3 +769,27 @@ atmosphere, river to lake)
- **Endangered**: facing imminent extirpation or extinction.
- **Threatened**: likely to become endangered if factors reducing its survival are not changed.
- **Special Concern**: may become threatened or endangered because of a combination of factors.
### Eutrophication
#### The Problem
- Lack or no dissolved oxygen, produces toxic algae, ugly.
- Colour, smell, and water treatment problems.
- Animal waste = nutrients.
- Examples
- Parks in china.
- Hanoi, vietnam.
#### Solutions
- Water cycling, through the use of watermills or waterfalls.
- People removing decomposing plants, collecting waste/garabage.
- Aerator.
### Resource Management
#### Forestry Practices
- Canadian economy rely heavily on forests.
- Difficult to find a balance between commerical demands and ecological integrity.
- Forest certifications are given to people that use safe practices
### Wildlife Management
- **`Stewardship`** (sustainable harvesting) must always be remembered!
- Inuit people had small populations and knew how their enviornments worked, European settlers changed all of that!