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Merge branch 'patch-6' into 'master'
Simplifying and reducing information that is *literally copied word for word* See merge request magicalsoup/Highschool!16
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925e8a34c2
@ -44,25 +44,24 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
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- Allows nutrients to enter
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- Allows waste products to leave
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- Surrounds and holds other organelles in cell
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- Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones)
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- Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones)
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### Nucleus
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- Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin`
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- DNA is a double helix that make genes
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- `Genes` are a complete set of instructions to make a complete product (typically proteins)
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- `Genes`: one of the many sets of instructions, in your DNA, found on a **chromosome**, for making a functional product (mostly proteins)
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- DNA is a double helix containing genes
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- `Genes` are a full set of instructions in DNA to make either RNA or a protein
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- `Chromatin` is DNA wrapped tightly in protein
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- `Chromosomes` are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only
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- Surrounded by a double membrane
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- Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
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- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins
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- Humans have ~2 m of genes per cell per nucleus tightly wrapped
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### Nucleolus
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- Dense region of DNA located in the nucleus
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- This area of DNA is specially for ribosomal DNA (rDNA), or DNA used to make ribosomes
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- Produce "large" and "small" subunits of ribosomes, which either form complete ribosomes in cytosol or mix with endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
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- Is *not* surrounded by a membrane, literally is just same as rest of nucleus but denser
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### Cytoplasm & Cytosol
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- `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain
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@ -72,101 +71,70 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
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## Endoplasmic Reticulum
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- The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface
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- Network of tubules and flattened sacs
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- **Transport** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles
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- **Transports** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles
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## Rouch Endoplasmic Reticulum
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## Specific to Rough ER
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- Appears "rough" due to the `ribosomes` attached to its outer surface
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- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
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- Located next to `Golgi apparatus`
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- `Ribosomes` in rough ER synthesize proteins
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- Only specific proteins are synthesized by ribosomes of rough ER
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- Proteins synthesized in `ribosomes` of rough ER are always sent to either `Golgi apparatus` via `vesicles` or stay in `rough ER`
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- `Ribosomes` attach to and leave the `rough ER` regularly
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- `Ribosomes` in rough ER **synthesize proteins**
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- Transports synthesized proteins to `Golgi apparatus` for packaging and distribution
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- About half the cell's proteins are produced here
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- **Modify, fold, and fix proteins**
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- Folds, fixes and **modifies both newly-created and pre-existing proteins** somewhat like **proof-reading**
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### Functions
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- **Protein synthesis**
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- About half of the cell's proteins are made here, by the `ribosomes`
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- **Protein movement**
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- Proteins are transported by vesicles throught the cell to other organelles, like the `golgi apparatus`
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- **Protein "Proof-Reading"**
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- pre-existing proteins can enter the `rough-ER` for **modification**
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## Smooth ER
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## Specific to Smooth ER
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- Does not synthesize proteins
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- Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes`
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- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
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- Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol)
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- Metabolises carbohydrates
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## Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Complex)
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- **Receives, modifies and transports** proteins that were produced by the `rough-E.R`
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## Golgi Apparatus
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- Also known as Golgi body, Golgi complex, etc.
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- **Receives, modifies and transports** proteins that were produced by the rough ER
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- **Packages** proteins into `vesicles` and sends them `cell membrane` for export
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## Lysosome
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- `White blood` cell uses the cytoskeleton to reach out and swallow up a bacterium, then uses `lysosomes` to break it down
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- Spherical vesicle that contains `enzymes`
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- Digests and kills foreign matter which is then excreted
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- Digests and breaks down old and unused material to be recycled
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- Digests and breaks down old or non-functional organelles as needed
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- Only plays a very minor role in cell suicide (`apoptosis`)
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- If lysosome does rupture (accidentally) everything dies
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- Spherical vesicle that containing `enzymes`
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- **Digests and kills** foreign matter which is then excreted
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- E.g., white blood cells use lysosomes to kill bacteria then spit it out
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- **Digests and breaks down** old and unused material/non-functional organelles as needed
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- If lysosome ruptures everything dies, hence they are known as "suicude sacs"
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### Functions
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- **Digestion**
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- Food or foriegn matter (invaders) are swallowed up and executed
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- **Recycling**
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- When an organelle "dies" `lysosomes` will recycle the dea material back into raw materials cellular suicide
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- **Cellular suicicde**
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- This is not good for the cell (obviously, but it is good for us. (E.g reasons why most of us don't have web feet/hands)
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## Midtochondria
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- **Plural is "mitochondria"**
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## Mitochondria
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- **Singular form is "mitochondrion"**
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- Contains an inner and outer membrane
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- Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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- ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule)
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- ATP cannot be stored
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- Mitochondria have their own DNA
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## Cytoskeleton
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- The cytosekleton **is** the skeleton of the cell, found in the `cytosol`, made up of protein.
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- The cytoskeleton is also like the muscular system, able to change teh sahpe of cells in a flash
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- Made of protein filaments
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- Maintains and changes cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system
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- Moves cells
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- Modifies and adjusts cell structure as needed
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- Chemicals can travel along cytoskeleton, e.g., organelles, vesicles, etc.
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## Organelles Specific To Animal Cells
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1. centrioles and centrosomes
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2. lysosomes
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## Organelles specific to animal cells
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### Centrioles and Centrosomes
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- Involved in the process of cell division for animal cells, plant cells **DO NOT** use centrioles
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### Centrioles and centrosomes
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- Made of same protein as cytoskeleton
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- A centrosome is a pair of centrioles
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- Very important to cell division
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- Split chromosomes apart after DNA has been replicated into daughter cells
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- Helps regulate cell division
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- Important to cell division in animal cells
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- Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively)
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### Lysosomes
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- Present in all animal cells but not present in the cells of most plants
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## Organelles Specific To Plant Cells
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1. Cell wall
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2. Chloroplast
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3. Central Vacuole
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## Organelles specific to plant cells
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### Cell wall
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- Provides structure and prevents cell rupture
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- Can be tough, flexible, and/or rigid
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- Permeable to small molecules
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- Made of cellulose (type of sugar)
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- Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists
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### Chloroplast
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- The `solar panel` of the plant cell.
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- The `solar panel` of the plant cell
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- Conducts photosynthesis
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- All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts
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- Looks green
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@ -175,15 +143,37 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
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- Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell
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- Contains water
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- Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions)
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- **Provides the cell with shape**
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- Maintains cell shape and resistance
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- Plant cells that lack turgor pressure (e.g., celery left in fridge) become flaccid
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## Cell division
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### Purpose
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#### Growth
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- Cells have maximum size before transportation of substances within cell becomes inefficient
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- Cells transport chemicals (e.g., nutrients) via `diffusion`
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#### Reproduction
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- Single-cellular organisms reproduce via division asexually
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- Multicellular organisms reproduce via combining two germ cells ("sex cells") that contain half the DNA each of two organisms
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- This is sexual
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#### Repair
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- Cells naturally die and need to be replaced
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- e.g., red blood cells, hair cells, skin, injuries
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### Cell cycle
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- Interphase
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- G1
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- S
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- G2
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- Mitosis
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- Occurs only in eukaryotic cells
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- Prophase
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- Prometaphase
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- Metaphase
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- Anaphase
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- Telophase
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- Cytokinesis
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- G0
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- Cell no longer divides
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- Outisde of cell cycle
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