Update Unit 2: Biology.md

2025-01-23 16:11:46 -05:00 · 2019-10-28 01:02:20 +00:00 · 2019-10-28 01:02:20 +00:00 · ee001a039c
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@ -40,22 +40,22 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells


 ### Cell Membrane
- - Controls what substances enter/leave the cell selectively via various receptors/osmosis
+- Controls what substances enter/leave the cell selectively via various receptors/osmosis
    - Allows nutrients to enter
    - Allows waste products to leave
- - Surrounds and holds other organelles in cell
- - Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones) 
+- Surrounds and holds other organelles in cell
+- Interact with outside chemicals (e.g., hormones) 

 ### Nucleus
- - Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of chromatin
+- Holds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in form of `chromatin`
    - DNA is a double helix that make genes
-        - Genes are a complete set of instructions to make a complete product (typically proteins)
+        - `Genes` are a complete set of instructions to make a complete product (typically proteins)
        - `Genes`: one of the many sets of instructions, in your DNA, found on a **chromosome**, for making a functional product (mostly proteins)
-    - Chromatin is DNA wrapped tightly in protein
-    - Chromosomes are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only
- - Surrounded by a double membrane
- - Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
- - Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to ribosomes to produce proteins
+    - `Chromatin` is DNA wrapped tightly in protein
+- `Chromosomes` are even more tightly wrapped chromatin used in cell division only
+- Surrounded by a double membrane
+- Substances enter and exit the nucleus via nuclear pores
+- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is encoded from DNA and sent to `ribosomes` to produce proteins


 ### Nucleolus
@ -65,24 +65,125 @@ A person contains roughly 100 trillion cells
 - Is *not* surrounded by a membrane, literally is just same as rest of nucleus but denser

 ### Cytoplasm & Cytosol
- - Cytosol is the fluid cells contain
- - All organelles are suspended in cytosol
- - Cytoplasm is the cytosol along with everything in a cell, excluding the nucleus
+ - `Cytosol` is the fluid cells contain
+ - **All organelles** are suspended in `cytosol`
+ - `Cytoplasm` is the `cytosol` along with everything in a cell, excluding the nucleus

-## Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
-The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of ribosomes on the surface
+## Endoplasmic Reticulum
+- The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules and flattened sacs with a "rough" appearance because of the presence of `ribosomes` on the surface
+- Network of tubules and flattened sacs
+- **Transport** proteins via cytoskeleton in vesicles

-### Function
- Protein synthesis
-    - About half of the cell's proteins are made here, by the ribosomes
- Protein movement
-    - Proteins are transported by vesicles throught the cell to other organelles, like the golgi apparatus
- Protein "Proof-Reading"
-    - pre-existing proteins can enter the rough-ER for modification
+## Rouch Endoplasmic Reticulum
+- Appears "rough" due to the `ribosomes` attached to its outer surface
+- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
+- Located next to `Golgi apparatus`
+- `Ribosomes` in rough ER synthesize proteins
+    - Only specific proteins are synthesized by ribosomes of rough ER
+    - Proteins synthesized in `ribosomes` of rough ER are always sent to either `Golgi apparatus` via `vesicles` or stay in `rough ER`
+    - `Ribosomes` attach to and leave the `rough ER` regularly
+    - About half the cell's proteins are produced here
+- **Modify, fold, and fix proteins**
+
+### Functions
+- **Protein synthesis**
+    - About half of the cell's proteins are made here, by the `ribosomes`
+- **Protein movement**
+    - Proteins are transported by vesicles throught the cell to other organelles, like the `golgi apparatus`
+- **Protein "Proof-Reading"**
+    - pre-existing proteins can enter the `rough-ER` for **modification**
+
+## Smooth ER
+- Does not synthesize proteins
+- Appears "smooth" due to lack of `ribosomes`
+- Located directly adjacent and attached to nucleus
+- Synthesizes lipids (fats, e.g., cholesterol)
+- Metabolises carbohydrates

 ## Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Complex)
- Receives, modifies and transports proteins that were produced by the rough-E.R
- Packages proteins into vesicles and sends them cell membrane for export
+- **Receives, modifies and transports** proteins that were produced by the `rough-E.R`
+- **Packages** proteins into `vesicles` and sends them `cell membrane` for export
+
+## Lysosome
+- `White blood` cell uses the cytoskeleton to reach out and swallow up a bacterium, then uses `lysosomes` to break it down
+- Spherical vesicle that contains `enzymes`
+- Digests and kills foreign matter which is then excreted
+- Digests and breaks down old and unused material to be recycled
+- Digests and breaks down old or non-functional organelles as needed
+- Only plays a very minor role in cell suicide (`apoptosis`)
+- If lysosome does rupture (accidentally) everything dies
+
+### Functions
+- **Digestion**
+    - Food or foriegn matter (invaders) are swallowed up and executed
+- **Recycling**
+    - When an organelle "dies" `lysosomes` will recycle the dea material back into raw materials cellular suicide
+- **Cellular suicicde**
+    - This is not good for the cell (obviously, but it is good for us. (E.g reasons why most of us don't have web feet/hands)
+
+## Midtochondria
+ - **Plural is "mitochondria"**
+ - Contains an inner and outer membrane
+ - Processes glucose + oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide + adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
+    - ATP allows proteins to do things (e.g., spend 1 ATP break 1 molecule)
+    - ATP cannot be stored
+ - Mitochondria have their own DNA
+
+## Cytoskeleton
+- The cytosekleton **is** the skeleton of the cell, found in the `cytosol`, made up of protein.
+- The cytoskeleton is also like the muscular system, able to change teh sahpe of cells in a flash
+- Made of protein filaments
+- Maintains and changes cell structure, much like a human skeleton + muscular system
+    - Moves cells
+- Chemicals can travel along cytoskeleton, e.g., organelles, vesicles, etc.
+
+## Organelles Specific To Animal Cells
+1. centrioles and centrosomes
+2. lysosomes
+
+### Centrioles and Centrosomes
+- Involved in the process of cell division for animal cells, plant cells **DO NOT** use centrioles
+ - Made of same protein as cytoskeleton
+ - A centrosome is a pair of centrioles
+ - Very important to cell division
+    - Split chromosomes apart after DNA has been replicated into daughter cells
+    - Helps regulate cell division
+ - Create cilia and flagella (e.g., small hair-like things that swipe dirt out of lungs and tails of sperm, respectively)
+
+### Lysosomes
+- Present in all animal cells but not present in the cells of most plants
+
+## Organelles Specific To Plant Cells
+1. Cell wall
+2. Chloroplast
+3. Central Vacuole
+
+### Cell wall
+- Provides structure and prevents cell rupture
+- Can be tough, flexible, and/or rigid
+- Permeable to small molecules
+- Made of cellulose (type of sugar)
+- Also present in most bacteria, fungi, and protists
+
+### Chloroplast
+- The `solar panel` of the plant cell.
+- Conducts photosynthesis
+- All chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts
+- Looks green
+
+### Central Vacuole
+- Extremely large, may take up to 90% of volume in cell
+- Contains water
+- Maintains `turgor` pressure against cell wall (pushes against cell wall in all directions)
+- **Provides the cell with shape**
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